NCERT has released Part 2 of its Class 9 Social Science textbook, “Understanding Society: India and Beyond,” with a chapter on invasions and resistance since the seventh century.

The chapter, titled “Resistance and Resilience,” says the Indian subcontinent faced successive invasions driven by territorial expansion and religious motives. It names Arab, Turkish, Mughal and European forces.

The book highlights resistance by Indian rulers and communities, including the Rajputs, Ahom kingdom, Vijayanagara Empire, Marathas, Sikhs and Jats.

It features lesser-known figures such as Queen Naikidevi of the Chalukya dynasty, who defeated Muhammad Ghori near Mount Abu in 1178, and Queen Abbakka Chowta of Ullal, who fought the Portuguese navy between 1525 and 1570.

The chapter also says many kings received swords from goddesses such as Kali, Durga and Bhavani as they resisted invasions. It notes the brutality faced by Sikh gurus under Mughal rule.

The book was released on September 29, six months after the academic session began. NCERT director Dinesh Saklani said social science learning should build analytical ability and critical inquiry.